Management Information System Questions

- MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM Question 1(10 Marks) Discuss five (5) challenges of Management discipline System (MIS). Answers foot A Management reading System (MIS) provides training which is compulsory to manage organizations effectively. Management selective schooling formations move leash primary resourcefulnesss much(prenominal)(prenominal) as peck, engine room and reading or finish making. Management schooling frames argon distinct from early(a) reading schemes in that they ar practice sessiond to conk out exploit activities in the organization.Academically, the destination is ordinarily utilize to refer to the group of info heed methods secure to the automation support of human decision making, e. g. decision support trunks, beneficial arrangings and executive field of operations placements. The Challenge of Management Information System (MIS) Although learning technology is advancing at a blinding pace, in that respect is naught easy or mechanical astir(predicate) building and victimisation development arrangings. There are five major challenges confronting managers 1. The entropy corpses investment challengeIt is diaphanous that mavin of the grea condition challenges facing managers today is ensuring that their companies do indeed commence meaningful returns on the money they spend on training organisations. Its one thing to use information technology to object, produce, deliver, and maintain clean products. Its a nonher thing to cause money doing it. How sight organizations mystify a sizable payoff from their investment in information arrangings? How post solicitude ensure that information dusts contri furthere to corporate place? cured management posterior be expected to ask these questions How rotter we try our information systems investments as we do separate investments? Are we receiving the return on investment from our systems that we should? Do our competitors get muc h? Far too umpteen firms still fagnot answer these questions. Their executives are likely to come trouble determine how roughly(prenominal) they really spend on technology or how to round the returns on their technology investments. more or slight companies lack a clear-cut decision-making run for eciding which technology investments to pursue and for managing those investments. 2. The strategic challenge What complementary assets are fatalityed to use information technology effectively? Despite heavy information technology investments, many another(prenominal) organizations are not realizing signifi dealt worry value from their systems, because they lackor fail to appreciatethe complementary assets choosed to make their technology assets run for. The power of reckoner hardware and bundle has gr birth much more rapidly than the ability of organizations to apply and use this technology.To benefit to the full from information technology, realize genuine productivity, and become competitive and effective, many organizations actually need to be re physiqueed. They go away harbor to make fundamental changes in employee and management behavior, stupefy new oeuvre models, retire obsolete work rules, and eliminate the inefficiencies of outmoded business routinees and organisational anatomical structures. New technology but will not produce meaningful business benefits. 3. The globalization challengeHow can firms to a lower placestand the requirements of a global economic environment? The rapid developing in international trade and the emergence of a global prudence call for information systems that can support some(prenominal) producing and selling goods in many oppo come out countries. In the past, to all(prenominal) one regional office of a multinational corporation focused on solving its own odd information bothers. Given language, cultural, and political differences among countries, this focus frequently endpointed in sanatoriu m and the failure of central management keep in lines.To develop commingled, multinational, information systems, businesses mustiness(prenominal) develop global hardware, software, and communications standards create cross-cultural news idea and reporting structures and conception transnational business suees. 4. The information technology infrastructure challenge How can organizations develop an information technology infrastructure that can support their goals when business conditions and technologies are changing so rapidly? Many companies are saddle with expensive and unwieldy information technology platforms that cannot adapt to innovation and change.Their information systems are so complex and brittle that they act as constraints on business strategy and execution. Meeting new business and technology challenges whitethorn require redesigning the organization and building a new information technology (IT) infrastructure. Creating the IT infrastructure for a digital firm is an especially formidable childbed. Most companies are crippled by fragmented and incompatible reckoner hardware, software, telecommunications meshworks, and information systems that prevent information from flowing freely between different split of the organization.Although Internet standards are solving some of these bondivity businesss, creating data and computing platforms that pass over the first stepand, increasingly, link the enterprise to external business partnersis rarely as circular-knit as promised. Many organizations are still struggling to integrate their islands of information and technology. 5. Ethics and security challenge The responsibility and control challenge How can organizations ensure that their information systems are used in an ethically and socially responsible manner?How can we design information systems that pile can control and understand? Although information systems suffer provided enormous benefits and efficiencies, they have overly cr eated new ethical and social puzzles and challenges. A major management challenge is to make informed decisions that are slender to the negative consequences of information systems as healthy to the positive ones. Managers face an on qualifying struggle to maintain security and control. Today, the threat of unauthorized penetration or disruption of information systems has never been greater.Information systems are so essential to business, government, and cursory look that organizations must take special steps to ensure their security, accuracy, and reliability. A firm invites contingency if it uses systems that can be disrupted or accessed by outside(a)rs, that do not work as intended, or that do not deliver information in a form that people can correctly use. Information systems must be designed so that they are secure, function as intended, and so that humans can control the process. QUESTION 2 (10 Marks)Explain with congressman (s) one (1) of the following Enterprise App lications a) ERP b) SCM c) CRM Answers a) ERP Introduction In 1990, Gartner Group first base employed the acronym ERP as an extension of material requirements seening (MRP), later manufacturing resource planning and computer-integrated manufacturing. Without sup deedsing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole, reflecting the evolution of diligence integrating beyond manufacturing. Not all ERP packages were certain from a manufacturing core.Vendors multifariously began with accounting, care and human resources. By the mid-1990s, ERP systems addressed all core functions of an enterprise. beyond corporations, governments and non-profit organizations alike began to employ ERP systems. Enterprise election Planning (ERP) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems integrate internal and external management information crossways an entire organization, embracing finance or accounting, manufacturing, sales and service, customer family relationship management, etc. ERP sy stems automate this activity with an integrated software finishing.Their purpose is to facilitate consortly flow of information between all business functions inside the boundaries of the organization and manage the connections to outside stakeholders. ERP systems can run on a variety of computer hardware and network anatomys, typically employing a database as a repository for information. Characteristics ERP systems typically let in the following characteristics- * An integrated systems that operates in real time (or next to real time), without relying on periodic updates. * A common database, which supports all applications. * A consistent look and feel end-to-end distributively module. Installation of the system without elaborate application/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department. Examples * Finance/ Accounting General ledger, payables, hard currency management, fixed assets, receivables, budgeting and consolidation. * Human Resources payroll, t raining, benefits, 401K, recruiting and diversity management. * Manufacturing Engineering, bill of materials, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow management, graphic symbol control, apostrophize management, manufacturing process, manufacturing jobs, manufacturing flow, activity establish be, product spiritednesscycle management. Supply chain management Order to cash, inventory, order entry, purchasing, product configurator, supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, reappraisal of goods, claim processing, commissions. * Project management Costing, billing, time and expense, executing units, activity management. * customer relationship management Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center support. * entropy services Various selfservice interfaces for customers, suppliers and/or employees. * Access control Management of user privileges for various processes. Components- * Transactional database Management portal/dashboard * argu ment intelligence system * Customizable reporting * External access via technology such as web services * Search * Document management * message/chat/wiki * Workflow management Connectivity to Plant Floor Information ERP systems connect to realtime data and exploit data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who shoot down un repeated goledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions. Direct integrationERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering.This requires the vendors to offer specific support for the plant floor equipment that their customers operate. ERP vendors must be expert in their own products, and connectivity to other vendor products, including competitors. database integrationERP systems connect to plant floor data sources with represent tables in a database. Plant floor systems trust the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.Enterprise appliance effect modules (EATM)These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, Web Services, or systemspecific program interfaces (APIs). The benefit of an EATM is that it offers an offtheshelf solution. Customintegration solutionsMany system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest take aim of sign integration cost, and can have a higher broad term sustainment and reliability cost. Long term be can be minimized by means of careful system testing and natural documentation.Customintegrated solutions typically run on workstation or server fall apart computers. execution ERPs scope normally implies significant changes to me ntal faculty work processes and practices. Generally, three types of services are obtainable to help implement such changesconsulting, customization, and support. Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the bumptiousness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be apply in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise consumes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.Small projects can require months multinational and other large carrying into actions can take years. Customization can substantially increase implementation times. Process preparation Implementing ERP typically requires changes in be business processes. ugly understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure. It is therefore career-or-death that organizations thoroughly analyze business processes in the leadhand implementation. T his outline can identify opportunities for process modernization. It likewise changes an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system.Research indicates that the risk of business process mismatch is decreased by * linking current processes to the organizations strategy * analyzing the effectiveness of from individually one process * understanding existing automated solutions. ERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies and decision centers. This whitethorn require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e. . linking via Master data management) or customizing the system to meet specific necessarily. A potential disadvantage is that adopting standard processes ca n lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losses in one stadium are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage. pattern Configuring an ERP system is just aboutly a matter of balancing the way the customer wants the system to work with the way it was designed to work. ERP systems typically build many changeable parameters that stipulate system operation.For example, an organization can select the type of inventory accountingFIFO or LIFOto employ, whether to recognize revenue by geographic unit, product line, or distribution channel and whether to pay for shipping costs when a customer returns a purchase. Customization ERP systems are theoretically based on industry best(p) practices and are intended to be deployed as is. ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that allow organizations to incorporate their own business rules but there are often functionality gaps remaining even after the configuration is complete.ERP customers have several options to reconcile functionality gaps, each with their own pros/cons. technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered functionality, writing a homegrown bolt-on/add-on module at bottom the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. All three of these options are vary degrees of system customization, with the first existence the most invasive and costly to maintain. Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices and/or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP functionality.Key differences between customization and configuration include * Customization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e. g. , tantrum up cost/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase acclamation rules, etc. ) * The software was designed to handle various configurations, and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration. * The effect of confi guration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable, is the customers responsibility and increases testing activities. Configuration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e. g. code that uses predefined meat hooks that are called before/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e. g. those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented. Customization Advantages * Improves user toleration * Offers the potential to obtain competitive advantage vis-a-vis companies using only standard features. Customization Disadvantages * Increases time and resources required to both implement and maintain. Inhibits seamless communication between suppliers and customers who use the same ERP system un-customized. * Over assurance on custom ization undermines the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform Extensions ERP systems can be extended with thirdparty software. ERP vendors typically provide access to data and functionality through published interfaces. Extensions offer features such as- * archiving, reporting and republication * capturing transactional data, e. g. using scanners, tills or RFID * access to specialized data/capabilities, such as syndicated marketing data and associated trend analytics. advanced planning and scheduling (APS) Data migration Data migration is the process of moving/copying and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the concluding activities before the production cast, it often receives insufficient attention. The following steps can structure migration planning * Identify the data to be migrated * Determine migration timing * become the data templates * Freeze the toolset Decide on migration-related setups * Define data archiving policies and procedures. equality to specialpurpose applications Advantages The fundamental advantage of ERP is that integrating the myriad processes by which businesses operate saves time and expense. Decisions can be make more quick and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include * Sales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization * Chrono ordered history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation. Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment * Revenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt * Matching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced) ERP systems centralize business data, bringing the following benefits * They eliminate the need to synchronize changes between multiple syste msconsolidation of finance, marketing and sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications * They bring legitimacy and transparency in each bit of statistical data. They enable standard product naming/coding. * They provide a comprehensive enterprise view (no islands of information). They make realtime information available to management anywhere, any time to make proper decisions. * They protect sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure. Disadvantages * Customization is problematic. * Reengineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage scrap and/or divert focus from other critical activities * ERP can cost more than less integrated and or less comprehensive solutions. higher(prenominal) switching costs associated with ERP can increase the ERP vendors negotiating power which can result in higher support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses. * Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can dive rt management attention. * Integration of truly free-living businesses can create unnecessary dependencies. * Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations. Due to ERPs architecture (OLTP, On-Line Transaction Processing) ERP systems are not well suited for production planning and supply chain management (SCM) The limitations of ERP have been recognized sparking new trends in ERP application development, the four significant developments universe make in ERP are, creating a more flexible ERP, Web-Enable ERP, Enterprise ERP and e-Business Suites, each of which will potentially address the failings of the current ERP. QUESTION 3 (18 Marks) come upon with example all stages of System using Lifecycle.Answers Introduction The Systems development life cycle (SDLC), or Software development process in systems engineering, information systems and software engineering, is a process of creating or altering information systems, and the models and methodologies that peo ple use to develop these systems. In software engineering the SDLC concept underpins many kinds of software development methodologies. These methodologies form the framework for planning and controlling the mental home of an information system the software development process.Software development contains set of activities which when performed in coordination and in accordance with one another result in the coveted result. Software development methodologies are used for the computer based information systems. The growth of the informations has to pass through various microscope stages or stages these stages are known as System Development Life steering wheel (SDLC). The SDLC follows a well defined process by which the system is conceived, developed and implemented. To understand system development, we need to recognize that a aspect system has a life cycle, much like a living system or a new product.Systems analysis and design are based to the system life cycle. The stages are described below. The analyst must development from one stage to another methodically, answering anchor questions and achieving results in each stage. Figure 1 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Stages mensuration 1 Recognition of Need What is the Problem? One must know what the problem is before it can be exculpated. The basis for a medical prognosis system is recognition of a need for improving an information system or a procedure. For example, a supervisor may want to analyse the system flow in purchasing.Or a bank president has been acquire complaints about the long lines in the drive in. This need leads to a prelim descry or an initial investigation to determine whether an alternative system can solve the problem. It entails looking into the duplication of effort bottlenecks, inefficient existing procedures, or whether parts of the existing system would be chances for computerization. If the problem is monstrous enough, management may want to have an analyst loo k at it, such an assignment implies a commitment, especially if the analyst hired from the utside. In larger environments, where orchis procedures are the norm, the analysts first task is to prepare a statement specifying the scope and objective of the problem. He/she then reviews it with the user for accuracy at this stage, only a rough globe parle portend of the development cost of the project may be reached. However, an straight cost of the next conformation the feasibility field of honor can be produced. Step 2 Feasibility Study Depending on the results of the initial investigation, the survey is expanded to a more detailed feasibility study.As we shall learn, a feasibility study is a test of a system proposal according to its workability allude on the organization, ability to meet user needs, and effective use of resources. It focuses on their major questions * What are the users demonstrable needs and how does a expectation system meet them? * What resources are ava ilable for inclined candidate systems? Is the problem worth solving? * What are the likely impact of the candidate system on the organization? How will it fit within the organizations master MIS plan?Each of these questions must be answered carefully. They revolve around investigation and rating of the problem, identification and description of candidate systems, specification of performance and the cost of each system, and final selection of the best system. The objective of a feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to acquire a sense of its scope. During the study, the problem definition is crystalised and aspects of the problem to be included in the system are determined. Consequently, costs and benefits are lookd with greater accuracy at this stage.The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is simply a report a formal document detailing the record and scope of the proposed solution. The proposal summarizes what is known and what is going to be done. It consists of the following. 1. Statement of the Problem a carefully worded statement of the problem that led to analysis. 2. Summary of Findings and Recommendations a list of the major findings and recommendations of the study. It is i oversee for the user who required quick access to the results of the analysis of the system under study.Conclusions are stated, followed by a list of the recommendations and a defense for them. 3. Details of Findings An blueprint of the methods and procedures undertaken by the existing system, followed by coverage of objectives procedures of the candidate system. Included are also discussions of output reports, file structures, and costs and benefits of the candidate system. 4. Recommendations and Conclusions special recommendations regarding the candidate system, including the personal assignments costs, project schedules, and target dates.Three key considerations are involved in the feasibility analysis economic, technical, behaviora l. Lets briefly review each consideration and how it relates to the systems effort. * Economic Feasibility Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a candidate system. More commonly known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine the benefits and nest egg that are expected from a candidate system and compare them with costs. If benefits outmatch costs, then the decision is make to design and implement the system.Otherwise, further justification or alterations in the proposed system will have to be made if it is to have a chance of universe approved. This is an ongoing effort that improves in accuracy at each phase of the system life cycle. * Technical Feasibility Technical feasibility centers around the existing computer system (hardware, software etc. ) and to what extent it can support the proposed addition. For example, if the current computer is operating at 80 per cent capacity an arbitrary ceiling then running another application could overload the system or require additional hardware.This involves financial considerations to accommodate technical enhancements. If the budget is a serious constraint, then the project is judged not feasible. * Behavioral Feasibility tidy sum are inherently resistant to change, and computers have been known to facilitate change. An estimate should be made of how strong a reaction the user staff is likely to have towards the development of a computerized system. It is common knowledge that computer installations have something to do with turnover, transfers, retraining, and changes in employee job status.Therefore, it is understandable that the introduction of a candidate system requires special effort to educate, sell, and train the staff on new ways of conducting business. After the proposal is viewed by management it becomes a formal agreement that paves the way for actual design and implementation. This is a crucial decision point in the life cycle. Ma ny projects die here, whereas the more promising ones proceed through implementation. Changes in the proposal are made in writing, depending on the complexity, size, and cost of the project. It is simply common sense to insure changes before committing the project to design.Step 3 Analysis It is a detailed study of the various operations performed by the system and their relationship within and outside of the system. A key question is what must be done to solve the problem? One aspect of analysis is defining the boundaries of the system and determine whether or not a candidate system should consider other related systems. During analysis, data are collected on available files, decision points, and transactions handled by the present system. We shall learn about some logical system models and tools that are used in analysis.It requires special skills and sensitivity to the subjects beingness interviewed. Bias in data collection and interpretation can be problem. Training, experie nce and common sense are required for collection of the information needed to do the analysis. Once analysis is completed the analyst has a firm understanding of what is to be done. The next step is to decide how the problem might be solved. Thus, in the systems design, we move from the logical to the physical aspects of the life cycle. Step 4 Design The most creative and challenging phase of the system life cycle is system design.The term design describes both a final system and a process by which it is developed. It refers to the technical specifications (analogous to the engineers blueprints) that will be applied in implementing the candidate system. It also includes the constructions of programs and programme testing. The key question here is How should the problem be solved?. The first step is to determine how the output is to be produced and in what format. Samples of the output (and input) are also available. Second, input data and master files (data base) have to be designe d to meet the requirements of the proposed output.The practicable (processing) phase are handled through programme construction and testing, including a list of the programmes needed to meet the systems objectives and complete documentation. Finally, details related to justification of the system and an estimate of the impact of the candidate system on the user and the organization are documented and evaluated by management as a step toward implementation. The final report prior to the implementation phase includes procedural flowcharts, record layouts, report layouts, and a workable plan for implementing the candidate system.Information on personnel, money, hardware, facilities and their estimated cost must also be available. At this point, projected costs must be close to actual costs of implementation. In some firms, separate groups of coder do the programming whereas other firms employ analyst programmers who do analysis and design as well as code programs. For this discussion , we assume that analysis and programming is carried out by two separate persons. There are certain functions, though, that the analyst must perform while programs are being written operating procedures and documentation must be completed.Security and auditing procedures must also be developed. Step 5 Testing No system design is ever perfect. Communication problems, programmers negligence or time constraints create errors that most be eliminated before the system is ready for user acceptance testing. A system is tested for online response, volume of transactions, stress, recovery form failure and usability. whence comes system testing, which verifies that the whole set of programs hangs together, following system testing is acceptance testing or running the system with live data by the actual use.System testing requires a test plan that consists of several key activities and steps for programs, string, system and user acceptance testing. The system performance criteria deal with tu rnaround time, backup, file protection, and the human factor. Step 6 Implementation This phase is less creative than system design. It is primarily concerned with user training, site preparation, and file conversion. When the candidate system is linked to terminals and remote sites the telecommunication network and tests of the network along with the system are also included under implementation.During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training. Depending on the nature of the system, extensive user training may be required, conversion usually takes place at about the same time the user is being trained or later. In the extreme, the programmer is falsely viewed as soul who ought to be isolated from other aspects of system development. Programming is itself design work, however. The initial parameter of the candidate system should be modified as a result of programming efforts. Programming provides a reality test for the assumptions made by the analyst.It is therefore a mistake to exclude programmers from the initial system design. System testing bits the readiness and accuracy of the system to access, update and see data from new files. Once the programmes become available, test data are read into the computer and processed against the file(s) provided for testing. If successful, the program(s) is then run with live data. Otherwise, a diagnostic procedure is used to local and correct errors in the program. In most programs, a duplicate run is conducted where the new system runs simultaneously with the old systems.This method, though costly, provides added assurance against errors in the candidate system and also gives the user-staff an opportunity to gain experience through operation. In some cases, however, twin processing is not practical. For example, it is not plausible to run two parallel online point-to-sale (POS) systems for a retail chain. In any case, after the candidate system proves itself, the old system is phased o ut. Step 7 evaluation During systems testing, the system is used experimentally to ensure that the software does not fail.In other words, we can feel out that it will run according to its specifications and in the way users expect. Special test data are input for processing, and the results examined. A limited number of users may be allowed to use the system so that analyst can see whether to use it in unforeseen ways. It is desirable to discover any surprises before the organization implements the system and depends on it. Implementation is the process of having systems personnel check out and put new equipment into use, train users, install the new application and construct any files of data needed to use it.This phase is less creative than system design. Depending on the size of the organisation that will be involved in using the application and the risk involved in its use, systems developers may choose to test the operation in only one area of the Firm with only one or two pe rsons. Sometimes, they will run both old and new system in parallel way to compare the results. In still other situations, system developers pulley block using the old system one day and start using the new one the next.Evaluation of the system is performed to identify its strengths and weaknesses. The actual evaluation can occur along any one of the following dimensions * Operational Evaluation Assessment of the manner in which the system functions, impact. * Organizational Impact identification and measurement of benefits to the organisation in such areas as financial concerns, operational efficiency and competitive impact. * User Manager Assessment Evaluation of the attitudes of cured and user manager within the organization, as well as end-users. Development Performance Evaluation of the development process in accordance with such yardsticks as overall development time and effort, conformance to budgets and standards and other project management criteria. Step 8 Post Impleme ntation and alimony Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the working system during its working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working environment. Often slender system deficiencies are found as a system is brought into operation and changes are made to remove them. System planners must always plan for resource availability to carry out these maintenance functions.The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards. After the installation phase is completed and the user staff is adjusted to changes created by the candidate system, evaluation and maintenance being. Like any system there is an ageing process the requires periodic maintenance of hardware software. If the new information is inconsistent with the design specifications, then changes have to be made. Hardware also requires periodic maintenance to keep in time with design specification. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to st andards. BIBLIOGRAFIGordon b. Davis Margrethe H. Olson. (1985). Management Information Systems Conceptual Foundations, social system and Development. New York McGraw-Hill. Lucey. T. (1987). Management Information Systems. 5th Ed. Eastleigh, Hants D. P Pubns. OBrien, mob A. (2002). Management Information Systems Managing Information Technology in the E-Business Enterprise. Boston McGraw-Hill. Robert C. Nickerson, Saravanan Muthaiyah. (2004). Introduction to Information Systems. Petaling Jaya Prentice Hall. McLeod Raymond, P. Shell George. (2004). Management Information Systems. N. J. Pearson Prentice Hall.